Do Superior Leaders Have Any Minimum Natural Born Traits?

It is a reality that quite a few people own inherited superior minimum natural born traits which provides them a ruling influence over their equals, and marks them out distinctly for leadership. This phenomenon is evident in all associations of human beings, in all assortments of conditions and on all levels of culture. Leadership is a figure of inherited superior minimum natural born traits. In other words, one is either born with it or not. The born leader will come out logically as the leader for the reason that one has inborn traits which provide one that certain and unquestioned label. Such a leader could most probably lead in all states of affairs. (Avolio, 2005) It is found heredity plays a vital role in certain behavioral features like bashfulness, intellect, ascendancy, social existence and aggression. Decisive part of leadership is truly elements of the personality. One either has charismatic personality or one doesn't. One was born with adore for hard work or one is lethargic. One has self-assurance or one has self-loathing. One is instinctive, with loads of common sense, or one is impetuous. And most prominently, one is sincere with oneself and can see where one’s mistakes lie. According to William Shakespeare â€Å"Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon them.† (Scrapbook.com, 2006) Shakespeare’s statement clearly supports my point of view that superior leaders have some minimum natural born traits.   Aristotle supports the view that â€Å"some men are born to lead, and others to be led.† (The Great Person ; Trait Theories of Leadership, 2006) In conclusion, there are certainly, born leaders with some minimum natural born traits. Still born leaders have to effort at their leadership abilities. It is not something one turns up at and that is it, one is there, a leader. References Avolio J. Bruce, (2005), Leadership Development in Balance: Made/Born. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. Scrapbook.com, William Shakespeare, retrieved on October 24, 2006 from http://www.scrapbook.com/quotes/doc/2057/300.html The Great Person ; Trait Theories of Leadership, â€Å"Great leaders are born, not made†, retrieved on October 24, 2006 from http://faculty.css.edu/dswenson/web/LEAD/GreatTrait.html ;

Realities of the Food Industry: A Review of the Film Food Inc Essay

In today’s time, threats to a person’s well-being do not just come from crimes and natural calamities. One of the biggest dangers Americans face are the negative consequences of the nation’s continuously prospering food industry. Robert Kenner’s 94-minute documentary film entitled Food Inc. revealed shocking truths and exposed the terrifying realities of how food is produced in America. Because of the vast changes that have taken place in the industry for the past years, several harmful practices have also developed not only in the eating habits of Americans but also in the way food is being produced. The film is about the corruption that is taking place in the food industry that is deliberately eating up the health of the nation. Food is a necessity to all the people. Sadly, it is also one of the most profited oriented industries in America. The documentary film reveals how the industry had been so encouraged to provide â€Å"faster, fatter, bigger, cheaper† products to their consumers in order to ensure good profits. It appears that we are receiving better supplies of food, but truth is, these new varieties of food are more harmful to people. Food Inc. disclosed that there are so many new products and foods are being sold today but they are all under the sacrifice of more people acquiring difficult diseases, animals and workers being abused, livelihood of farmers getting less, and environment getting punished. For a very long time, giant food companies and relevant government agencies have actually tried to keep these important but degrading things hidden from American consumers. The film exposed how companies are profiting from consumer’s health in the way they produce food. Other than making the production faster and more stable, technology and usage of chemicals have also resulted to the increase of the risks and health damages that people can experience. Even vegetables are not safe anymore. New species of bacteria had appeared and Americans have become more defenseless than ever. Food Inc. exposed how giant companies are more interested in making their business rich very fast without even giving sufficient consideration for the health of their consumers. What makes matters worse is how the government adds up to the problem. The film reveals that government regulatory agencies that should be monitoring the industry and ensuring the safety of the people are actually creating more ways to protect the profiting companies. Food Inc. highlights on the controversial law that prohibits the revealing of how food in being produced and the criticizing of food products. This law is one of the significant reasons why many Americans remain ignorant to the real situation and instead suffer the consequences of sickness, diseases, obesity, and diabetes. Food Inc. is a powerful and haunting film that had proved to be informative and motivating for people to re-think their food intake. More than just presenting the horrible realities of the industry, the documentary also presented possible solutions or small steps that each consumer could take in order to make a change. If the government continues to aid the anomalous practices of these companies, then public awareness should be heightened by advocacy campaigns that demand healthier supply of food. This film is just one of the perfect examples of how to campaign against the terrible truths in the food industry. The film also disproved the notion that consumers cannot do anything against the powerful companies that abuse them. Experts highlight the consumers do have the capacity to change things and correct all the irresponsible, damaging practices of the industry. If consumers would take actions on the awareness and start demanding for more nourishing foods, companies will have no choice but to produce more nutritious products. Works Cited Food Inc. Dir. Kenner, R†¦ Magnolia Pictures, 2009. DVD. â€Å"Food Inc. † Internet Movie Database. Web. 30 April 2010. .

Raytheon Corporations New International Market in South Africa Research Paper - 4

Raytheon Corporations New International Market in South Africa - Research Paper Example When it comes to devising the most effectual security solutions, Raytheon Corporation employs all its proficiency at its disposal. Raytheon Corporation exploits all its advanced technological expertise and partnering with its experienced teammates and clients in the security field. As an integrator, Raytheon Corporation employs software solutions and equipment that are best suited to meet particular security requirements by clients. The key aspect of Raytheon Corporation’s growth can be attributed to its strong dedication to the international marketplace (Raytheon Corporation, 2014).  With the present global economy, the risk of expanding into other nations can be high; however, South Africa may be a strategic spot in Africa owing to its transportation location and its stabilizing economy. With the South African government being the main target of this expansion, this move may also be the most favorable for Raytheon Corporation. The South African government has the full capa city to expend whatever may be required to aid in maintaining the safety of its assets. South Africa possesses a huge potential to do business with since it has a relatively stable political and economic system. Moreover, South Africa has an excellent position in the African continent; for this reason, it makes transportation by sea more cost efficient and easier.  South Africa’s current exchange rate stands at one U.S. dollar against 10.5432 South African Rand (Oanda, 2014). The political risk in South Africa would be minor since there have been close political ties between the U. S. and South Africa since 1994. With these well-built political ties among the two countries and the multiple ambassadorial trips that are taken by both parties since 1994, the risk of immediate losses owing to politics would be little. Moreover, there is also a local U.S. embassy established in South Africa, to address various diplomatic

Recovery of the China Stock Market and Challenges in the Post-Crisis Essay - 1

Recovery of the China Stock Market and Challenges in the Post-Crisis Era - Essay Example In fact, an outflow of approximately US$25 billion was experienced by China in December only, and at some point in the fourth quarter of 2008 a sum of US$150 billion was pulled out from the country, according to the report of the Bank of China (Min-Chan 2009, 43). The dramatic economic growth of China has to a certain extent been fuelled by its thriving export-driven production. Nevertheless, the export of China by mid-2008 diminished to a ‘negative 20-percent growth rate from the positive 20-30 percent rate in previous years’ (Platt 2009, 50). Because of these developments some financial analysts predicted that China would confront a financial crisis in 2009 and 2010. The prediction happened and this forced the Chinese government to initiate a set of stimulus package (Yao & Zhang 2011). These attempts of China to recover from the global financial crisis will be analyzed in this paper. The end of 2007 witnessed the sharp rise of China’s stock markets; however, the end of 2008 witnessed the bubbles’ remarkable rupture. The SSECI showed a decrease from 6,135 in 2007 to 1,608 in 2008 (Yao & Zhang 2011, 26). It has improved to some extent, but has been wrestling to swing around 3,000 from the period of the bubble disintegration. The SSECI showed 2,900 at the end of 2010 (Yao & Zhang 2011, 26). These changes are shown in the figure below: China exposed the avenues to new share offerings, letting loose a stream of initial public offerings (IPOs) to aid in the absorption of surplus liquidity and calm a raging stock market. What began as a drop of IPOs became a surge, with numerous companies primed to register in the Shanghai Stock Exchange (Platt 2009). According to Michael Guillen, professor of international management and director of the Lauder Institute, in his remark about the recovery attempts of China’s stock market in the Financial Times (2009), â€Å"During the last two years, monetary policy has

Assignment 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 5

Assignment 2 - Essay Example ng, investigating and comprehending concepts for the main objective of concept advancement, description, contrasting, explanation, classification, modification and substantiation. Conceptual analysis is further a course of investigation that delves into concepts for their stage of advancement as portrayed by their interior framework, applications and interaction to other concepts. In fact, conceptual analysis outlines the center for supplying definitions of abstract concepts. It has varied standing in learning. From the time when it was introduced in learning, it was clear that it is a fundamental tool for advancement of theory. However, it is clear that conceptual analysis is complicated. It is evident that it does not provide clear means to contribute to further theoretical knowledge (Sowa, 2006). Conceptual analysis does not provide significant theoretical foundation of learning. In reference to Sowa (2006), it is a random and an informal process that constrains the development of science. It can lead to huge worry and anxiety for the reason that there are no strict rules on how to conduct the process of conceptual analysis. This means that researchers can fail to determine the best way to carry out the whole process that includes going through large mass of literature. Due to the fact that conceptual analysis has an easy attribute, the work at the end of the process is associated with poor quality. It is clear that conceptual analysis requires a lot of thorough work, patience and elevated levels of cognitive abilities which many researchers lack, thereby lowering the quality of the end result. Conceptual analysis may lead to a value attachment, thereby moralising the concept in analysis in case there are any values attached. This may bar the analytic process and destroy the entire research. On the other hand, concept critical thinking lacks a moral feature and value attachment turns out to be useless in the current analysis. There is a desire to increase

According to the require Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

According to the require - Assignment Example With this, age plays a crucial role in language acquisition since it is based on the biological innateness of competence in language. Although a child is not able to learn language by the age of two, this is an expected requirement before puberty (Rowe & Dianne, 110). The discovery of Genie took place through one of the social workers who noticed the 13-year old girl after her mother requested for the services. However, she was not able to acquire a language within a critical period because she did not have any language at the time. She had been one of those feral children who had been raised in social isolation. She had very little or no human contact at all. During the whole of her childhood, she spent most of the moments locked in a bedroom where she had been abused and isolated for an entire decade (Nova Teachers Sc. 1-5). Some of the symptoms that she exhibited in relation to this failure when she was discovered were her ability to reach out to things without saying anything and the ability to communicate with her eyes. She had less weight and was barely able to walk as she had a strange â€Å"bunny walk† (Nova Teachers Sc. 1). As indicated in this film, there is a forbidden experiment which is about deprivation and social isolation to study how language is acquired among human beings. The moral requirements of scientific experiments do not allow researchers to conduct studies using methods of social deprivation. In this respect, Viktor, who was a speechless child discovered in the 19th century in France became a model of this experiment by exposing how the environment within which a child is nurtured can contribute to a horrifying past (Nova Teachers Sc. 1-5).. Since her discovery, the long-term development of Genie’s language was the ability to add new vocabularies to her language every day. She first learnt single words, then

Conventional architectural theoray Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Conventional architectural theoray - Essay Example Beauty lies in the potential of the cogent mind to dig up prescribed conventions from the contiguous world, thereby making transparent collective mechanism of the perfect apparatus. It comes as no shocker that progressive modernists often took an aggressive stance to the communities they lived and worked in. the modernist architect’s modernist architect progressivism regularly amounted to elitism and paternalism. But as of today, architecture has become essentially sophisticated and contradictory in its very insertion of the conventional Vitruvian aspects of commodity, inflexibility, and pleasure. Presently, the needs of programs, structure, mechanical apparatus, and articulation, even in solitary buildings in plain perspectives, are diverse and conflicting in ways originally unimaginable. â€Å"Orthodox Modern architectures have tended to recognize complexity insufficiency of inconsistency.†1 Thereby in their effort to break with convention and begin all over, again, t hese architectures romanticized the primordial and basic at the expense of the varied and the compounded. Crystal Palace Joseph Paxton’s design for the Crystal Palace in London in the 1850s was both creative and avant-garde in its design. Besides being a phenomenal building to look at, the design of the Crystal Palace as well gave rise to increasing philosophical and ideological inference on the range of glass as an architectural material. Smith hence opines: â€Å"building materials in the modern are assumed significance in architectural theory that had not possessed in the past.†2 The very notion of utilizing architectural design as an ideological symbol has just presently become a motif of hypothetical assessment, although its embedded utilization as a political statement dates back as far as the art structure itself. The perceptual utilization of glass as a representation of vision permits for an elasticity of assessment that involves looking at, being stared at, a nd staring at whilst being glanced at. The Crystal Palace is regarded a symbol of the progress towards modernity, an enclosure for the exhibition of value objects that imitated Walter Benjamin’s notion of exhibitory value. On the other hand, Bentham’s Panopticon, implying that whist that buildings with the express function of permitting everyone to be seen, the Crystal Palace was instead designed so that everybody inside could view out. Nevertheless there is sense that the political functions of architecture are covert. Architecture can and must be critiqued as ideological undertones; however the mistake rests on presuming ideological intent among designers. For the Crystal Palace, it is effortless enough to view that glass functions ideologically for critics. Loews Philadelphia Hotel(PSFS Building Plan) The construction of the PSFS Building was designed as opposition to conformity for its architects, Philadelphians namely George Howe and William Lescaze. The structure is innovative in every account. An arc foundation beginning on the street level and moves up five stories above grade: a T-shaped plan surfaces, held up from the foundation, housing 32 floors of office space. The levels have perpendicular flow at the junction of the T-shape. The street level sketch, in response to the robust economy of the early 1920s and the raise of consumerism, is committed virtually nearly to retail. The curved facade attracts patrons and is welcomed

Wk 2 discussion questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Wk 2 discussion questions - Essay Example This will help him feel successful. I remember that in grade school I was a not a good math student. Everything was fine in math class until 4th grade. That is when multiplication and division was introduced. I understood addition and subtraction and working with decimals, but multiplication was very hard for me to grasp. I was weak in my math skills going into 5th grade. My teacher worked with me until Christmas break to help me learn my multiplication tables. She was emotionally supportive through this entire process by rewarding and recognizing all of my successes. She never made me feel as though I was wasting her time or that I was a burden. She made it clear that everyone learns how to do math in his or her own way and in his or her own time. When I returned from Christmas break, I thought I was finished with my tutoring sessions with the teacher, but to my surprise they were just beginning. I was still having trouble memorizing the multiplication tables, so my teacher began to keep me inside from recess. I hated this, but I never remember feeling as though I was being punished. The kindness my teacher used, and her unwavering firmness in insisting I learn these math facts, was a great support to me as I progressed through the year. Her emotional support helped to make me a

Dynamic of Machines Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Dynamic of Machines - Essay Example Racing car drivers require as quick a shift as possible. Not only is there a change in characteristics of the modern race engine, there is also an increasing awareness of the importance of transmission in a racing car. In order to make Formula 1 Racing more environmental friendly, transmission firms Torotrak and Xtrac are developing a highly efficient transmission system capable of capturing, storing and reusing kinetic energy from racing cars. The new technology with the help of a flywheel, will recover and store kinetic energy during deceleration that can then be used for acceleration; thus providing highly efficient kinetic energy recovery systems (KERS) for motorsport. â€Å"Torotrak’s patented Toroidal Traction Drive Variator provides a continuous and variable ratio connection between the flywheel and the vehicle driveline via the gearbox† (PE 2007, p.14). Mechanical efficiency greater than 90% is obtained by advanced construction of the flywheel. The system not only optimizes performance, but also cuts carbon-dioxide emissions. According to Griffo & Lauria (2005), increasing stability-related aspects is essential for achieving improved generation and transmission structures. For improving the dynamic behaviour of electrical power systems, transmission-line reclosure is an efficient structural action. The new technique for computing the optimal reclosure time of a transmission line is based on optimal control strategies for switched dynamic systems. This method allows the use of high-order modelling, including control-system and relay action. Numerical simulations substantiate the effectiveness of the proposed strategy which increases system stability and improves damping oscillations. In applications where elevated transmission ratios are required, especially in the automobile field, continuously variable transmissions (CVTs) have developed significantly. Their advantages are high in terms of car handling and

Determinism,compatibilism, and libertarianism Essay

Determinism,compatibilism, and libertarianism - Essay Example Since the beginnings of human civilization people have been seeking the ideal path to achieving a productive, successful, healthy, and happy society. There are several different theories conceived and developed aimed at achieving it. Unfortunately, many of these ideas are not remotely in agreement and some downright contradict one another. Each one claiming to have the answer as to the nature of mankind, why human beings behave as they do, and how best for them to live within and perceive society. Determinism, compatibilism, and libertarianism are three prime examples of philosophical concepts, each having strong historical support and criticisms. While each ideology has logical arguments supporting its validity they, also, have internal flaws that may lead to negative outcomes; therefore determining which, if any, is the most likely to be the best, or correct, answer to ideal human society and perspective on human reality if no easy feat. What is free will? If so, does it exist? The answer is not as simple as you think. If you define free will as being the idea that reality plays out according to the millions of individual choices and decisions we make based on wants and desires, both, great and small, then the ideology behind Determinism may not be for you. However, if you believe that scientific principles, psychological motivators, and persistent causative events outside ones’ control and force every choice that you make; even the sense of choice is, essentially, a false perception, then you would be a poor libertarian. If you believe that, although many causative events play a part in influencing our decisions and behaviors, but, on occasion those causative elements are absent, allowing for certain choices to be made solely by want and desire beyond needs and if you believe that perhaps both could coexist, then you might fit in nicely in the company of compatibilists. However, do not look for support from the determinists and libertarians, both cons ider the idea of coexistence as illogical, not plausible, and impossible. (Pecorino, 2000) In order to understand, determinism, capatibilism, and libertarianism better, as well as, assess the differing strengths and weaknesses, it is necessary to discuss and review each theory individually. Determinism in its, most basic form, can be defined as a belief system that adheres to the ideology that all things in nature are subject to the cause and effect principal, human behavior included. For this reason human beings are not responsible for their behavior because the actions and behaviors exhibited by people are directly a response to causal or set of causal events, entirely outside their control. More so, determinists believe that all things follow the natural law and that behaviors can, in fact, be predicted, if enough causal variables are known.(Pecorino, 2000) Simply put, determinists look at the world at given period in time and apply the â€Å"natural laws,† or clearly defi ned understanding of what is true, and then relating that to what will inevitably be in the future.(Newall, 2005)There are 4 specific factors that are believed to play a huge role as causative factors in the actions and behaviors of human beings; 1. Human Nature: determinists claim that human beings are subject to the instincts and biological imperatives outside of their conscious control. 2. Environment: human behavior can be attributed to their response to environmental factors that, essentially, forcing their hand. 3. Psychological Forces: Not unlike human nature, psychological drives influence behavior, again, outside one’s control. 4. Social Dynamic: human beings are directly subject to the rules, laws, and societal constructs of their communities, which, also, influences human behavior. Ultimately, the overall reigning element of determinism that characterizes and creates criticism of it is that it holds firmly that human free will is an illusion that we

Critical Incident Analysis Essay Example for Free

Critical Incident Analysis Essay Throughout this assessment I will analyse a critical incident of an interaction between a worker and a service user or carer during my statutory observation experience. I will conclude my own assessment of the situation and demonstrate my understanding of the use of self, context in which social work takes place and the knowledge and methods of practice. I will not use any of the service users, carers or agencies names in this essay due to the data protection act 1998. I will also adhere to the GSCC codes of conduct that respect and relate to the service users confidentiality and safety. This include respecting confidential information and clearly explaining agency policies about confidentiality to service users and carers, being reliable and dependable, declaring issues that might create conflicts of interest and making sure that they do not influence your judgement or practice; and adhering to policies and procedures about accepting gifts and money from service users and carers. (GSCC, codes of practice for social care workers. ) My statutory observation placement is at a clinic for substance misuse, mainly being heroin, crack cocaine and alcohol. During one of my days there I was given the opportunity to shadow one of the clinics general practitioners for the day. The general practitioners main role is to work alongside the service user in order to help the break the cycle of drug or alcohol dependency and also to live a healthier lifestyle and offer them a better standard of living. The general practitioner meets with the service users on a monthly basis in which gives him the opportunity to gain as much information about the service user as he can in order for him to work with them as effectively and efficiently as possible. The general practitioner greeted the service user in the service room, and he also asked the service user’s permission for me to be present in the room, which then he further explained me being a student social worker. The service user agreed to this. Before actually meeting the service user I had the chance to read through their notes with the doctor so I could get a better understanding of what the meeting would entail, Furthermore to gain a better understanding of the service user’s background and their main reasons for being there. I introduced myself to the service user as a student social worker. We all sat down and the GP went through the notes with the service user and asked them about any other incidents that may have occurred since the last meeting. Prior to the meeting with the service user the GP had revived the service users latest drug test results which were indicating that the service user still had very high traces of heroin in his system even though he was on a methadone script. Furthermore the drug test did not correspond with the amount of methadone that should have been visible in the service users system. Therefore the GP explained what the test results indicated and queried the service user of why the test results have come back with these conclusions. The service user then went on to explain that these indications are showing on the results because the service user has been selling his methadone prescriptions to feed his heroin addiction as he is unemployed and was not receiving the same feeling off the methadone that he would get when he would take heroin. The GP then called one of the clinics social workers as he could only advise the service user on the effects that it will have on their health, but could not help them with the mental and social strain that comes with drug addiction which a social worker could. A social worker then come in and spoke to the service user, to find out about his social background and other emotional issues that are present in the service user’s life that may influence the taking of heroin. ‘A critical incident analysis is a solution, either positive or negative that made a particular impression on a student (Clamp 1984 cited in Reed and Procter 1993) (p. 69). Richard and Parker (1995) argue that reflecting and analysing the incident the practitioner is able to consider how the incident may have been managed differently by applying other knowledge and consequently enable the practitioner to move forward and consider a future situation differently. For the purposes of this piece of work I will be analysing an observation of a meeting between a male and a GP. When I learnt that I was going to be shadowing at a clinic for service users with drug and alcohol problems I was quite worried and intrigued as to what would take place. Then I realised I had to be holistic and also realistic, and although I am not close to anyone that has a heroin, crack cocaine or even an alcohol addiction I have been surrounded by people that have used certain drugs such as cannabis or cocaine. I also feel that I will not always know that this is the case as not everyone demonstrates through their behaviour that this is an issue for them, also some individuals feel ashamed as drug and alcohol use is frowned upon and individuals will deny using drugs. Some individuals explain that they use drugs as a way of numbing their problems or to gain confidence and self esteem. Beliefs about oneself and about the role of drugs or alcohol in ones life are sometimes called existential models (Greaves, 1980). Khantzian (1985) has proposed that addicts use drugs to offset or address specific problems they believe they have, such as a lack of confidence in social-sexual dealings, a view sometimes referred to as the adaptive model of addiction. According to Peele (1985), the individual becomes addicted to a substance because it fulfils essential intrapsychic, interpersonal, and environmental needs. I have always been swayed, and my views have always been clouded by what is written in the media. Substance misuse is always given a negative image and the people that use drugs or alcohol are looked upon in a very negative way, and seen as less important and problematic in society. When looking in on various conversations at this placement I have noticed the band wagon effect- Brown and Rutter (2009) come into play, as it seems to me that family members were scared to be disowned or frowned upon if they were to help the drug user, or even offer advice and support. Throughout my upbringing I have always been warned about the effects of drugs and alcohol misuse, however I feel that my parents didn’t really carry a lot of knowledge about the subject. The misuse of drugs act 1971 intends to prevent the use of non medical use of certain drugs for this reason it controls not just medicinal drugs (which will also be in the Medicines Act) but also drugs with no current medical uses. Offences under this Act overwhelmingly involve the general public, and even when the same drug and a similar offence are involved, penalties are far tougher. Drugs subject to this Act are known as controlled drugs. The law defines a series of offences, including unlawful supply, intent to supply, import or export (all these are collectively known as trafficking offences), and unlawful production. I was able to relate the misuse of drugs act 1971 to the conversation in which I shadowed as the service user was selling drugs that were only supposed to be taken as a controlled medicine that is prescribed. Therefore the service user is committing an offence. The medicines act 1968 clearly states that Prescription only medicines are the most restricted. They can only be sold or supplied by a pharmacist if supplied by a doctor. Pharmacy medicines can be sold without a prescription but only by a pharmacist. General Sales List medicines can be sold by any shop, not just a pharmacy. However, even here advertising, labelling and production restrictions apply. drugscope. org. uk Interviews were carried out with 68 people who were involved in selling in the four markets. Three-quarters of them were men. Their average age at the time of interview was 31, and just under a third had lived in the areas all their lives. Many had experienced unsettled early lives: over half had lived with a foster family, in a childrens home or in secure accommodation. Interviewees had typically used alcohol and illicit drugs from an early age. Many had had a disrupted education, over half being excluded from school or leaving with no educational qualifications. Nearly all had been in contact with the criminal justice system, and over two-thirds had served a prison sentence. Throughout the interaction between the GP the social worker and the service user, and also having conjured up these images of substance miss use I was worried I was going to find it extremely hard to relate to the service user, and also find it difficult to hold in my emotions. I felt as though the individual did not value his own life and other around him, this then made me reconsider my own values and belief systems. I believe that my â€Å"use of self came into context as I strived for genuineness with the service user and I truly wanted to believe that they were on the road to recovery. However I still honoured the values and ethics I strongly value in social work. I could not imagine myself, what it must be like to be addicted to a drug or alcohol, and I have had this stereotypical image of what it would be like and how a person would live their life. I imagined them to be without a lot of money, and living in very poor housing conditions. But also imagined them to hang around with the wrong crowd which may be a big influence on how they go about things. Some of these perceived ideas were backed up by research or what I have seen in the media. It is also very much a stereotypical image. Rogers (cited in Thompson 1988) says that making a judgement about people can be a barrier to effectiveness and is something I need to be aware of if I am to become a reflective and reflexive practitioner. When I first met the service user, I was surprised as to how well he looked considering the circumstances, He seemed very outgoing, friendly and generally happy. I order to gain the facts around the service user’s current situation this meeting had been arranged between the GP and the service user. The conversation began with open questions from the GP to the service user in an effort to gather information about his behaviour and addiction to heroin. He asked the service user about any events that had happened since the last meeting, he explained that he had used heroin since even though he has been assigned to a methadone script, and the way he has been fuelling his heroin addiction is by selling his methadone to other users that can not get any substances top feed their addiction. According to Lawson (cited in Davies 2008) even if their is a key worker system in place the whole team still need to be aware of the intervention and support that the service user is getting. I felt that this was not happening as their should of been a closer supervision in place for the service user to take his methadone script which would therefore prevent the service user being able to sell the drug for money and other purposes. This to me proved that there was a lack in communication; therefore I would be worried that this could potentially be dangerous and cause problems if the service user was able to get away and carry out these sorts of actions. As Seden (2005:2) states â€Å"whether a communication is good depends on how it is received in the situation and what is conveyed to the other person. GP prescribed the service user with a higher methadone dosage that he was on before. This was never noted to his key worker or discussed before hand which therefore allowed the service user to sell his extra methadone and be unnoticed for so long. As Seden (2005:2) states â€Å"whether a communication is good depends on how it is received in the situation and what is conveyed to the other person. Throughout the meeting I made sure I paid particular attention to the way in which I was positioned using the Egan (2007) theory of Soler. I also made sure that I put the focus on the ther person and on what they were offering as they spoke, rather than keep asking them for additional information or going on to talk about other things, this is called paraphrasing and summarising. Eye contact or looking at the user of services is important in this kind of situation and context as it conveys that we are attending to the other, it is a way of saying â€Å"I am interested in what you say and f eel†. The Soler theory is an effective theory to undertake whilst being in this position when listening to a service user one on one. As you need to make the service user feel that you are genuinely interested in what they have to say, then only will the service user actually open up and truly tell you what his problems are as then they are confident that I am here to honestly try to help them. Egan (2007) (p. 99) argues that attentive listening to these experiences and feelings of users of services is critical for further work: these experiences help us to understand where they are starting from and their frame of reference. Attentive listening is very effective in these sorts of situations with service users, as every service user is different and has different problems. Therefore listening intricately is very important as this will then help you navigate in which is the most effective and efficient route to take in trying to help rehabilitate each individual. As the meeting went on social worker began to question the service user’s motives for selling his methadone script and continuing to take heroin. The service user then went on to explain that it is because he does not have a strong support network as his family have disowned him and the only companions he has are the other heroin users. This is why he is struggling to break the chain of causation as the only people he is surrounded by are the other users and dealers. After hearing this I was impressed with his capacity to cope with the situation that he was in. This meeting reinforced Schulman’s (2006) resilience theory. Here was a man who had been disowned by his own family for being a heroin user for many years and is currently undergoing a methadone script and does not have much support around him at all and is experiencing a lot of disruption in his life. In reference to the Ecological model I can see that the service user is struggling to stop continuing taking heroin. This is because the environment that he is present in is surrounded my other drug takers and drug dealers which therefore triggers his new drug fuelled instinct to relapse and take heroin again. Whereas if the service user had a different environment that he could go to where it was drug exempt, this could encourage the service user to stay off heroin and act as a barrier in which would break the chain of causation for relapsing and taking drugs again. (Social service review 1998) Being able to read the case notes enabled me to be better informed. Schulman (2006) talks about how ‘tuning in’ and how it involves the workers effort to get in touch with the potential feelings and concerns that the client may bring to the encounter. The purpose is to help the worker become a more sensitive receiver of the client’s indirect communication in the first sessions. I tried to put myself in a similar where I had questioned someone that had authority over me, the only example I could think of was when I had been in detention at school as a child and I was questioned as to why I was there, and why I did the incident. I felt powerless and frightened as they had more authority over me, and seemed so much more important. I could not seem to get my point across and I did not feel that he was listening to my point of view and taking it into consideration. This has made me realise how important it is to make the service user feel at ease as you are asking them to open up and asking them to let you in and explore their troubles. They will only allow this if they feel comfortable and not undermined. However at the same time establishing clear boundaries with the service user is very important. Throughout the meeting I realised just how hard it would be discussing your problems and the use of drug addiction to two complete strangers, furthermore having to open up about your life and all the problems you have encountered on the way to lead you to this state of life. As a result I tried to keep a low profile during the meeting, by not making eye contact with the service user and trying to make myself inconspicuous. By avoiding eye contact I was merely reinforcing the awkwardness I felt. Schulman (2006) believes that it is better to tackle difficult subjects head on. Then I was worried that the service user may think that my lack of ability to maintain sufficient eye contact could lead him to think that I was merely not interested in what he had to say or that I disapproved with some of the explanations that he was presenting. When it was just to do with me being uncomfortable. Lloyd (cited in Davies 2008) talks about the need for social workers to work on there own issues. This should involve self awareness and being comfortable around others. This will help me challenge my views but also help me become more self aware and, in turn, more open to others who are struggling to express their difficulties. While my own life was not trouble free neither was it associated with the emotional turmoil and psychic disturbance which Hall Stanley G (cited in Davies 2008) research showed. I have always had the support of a loving family and friends. I have always been influenced to do well at school, go on to university and make something of my life. I have also been lucky enough to always live in nice areas that have very low crime rates, however this was not the case for the service user. He has always grew up and lived in very run down, deprived areas and has mixed with the wrong social circles. He has also not have had the family and friend support network which I think a person strongly needs in their life. The service user also left school with no GCSE’S and went straight into work, which was bar work which lead him to a wrong crowd. Giddens, A (2001) refers to gender as the psychological, social and cultural differences between makes and females. Essentially sex is determined biologically and gender is culturally learnt. The functionalist sociologist would argue that boys and girls learn sex roles through socialisation while the feminist perspective would be that women do not share the same status as men in society. It can be argued that male socialisation infers that they are the stronger sex and not able to express their emotional feelings as females are able to. The service user’s lack of permanence and consistency with his own parents and friends will, according to Rushton (2000) impact on his emotional development. It is therefore important that the professionals in his life are not seen to perpetuate these feelings. The holistic approach builds on the social model of disability which is the theory of there being blocks such as environment disabling systems and social attitudes that are getting in the way of the service users independence. Therefore in this case going by the holistic approach, the service user that I was able to shadow, his environment acts like a block to his independence as the social attitudes to the people within his environment are drug related which is leading the service user to carry on using drugs. The holistic approach builds on the social model of disability that sees blocks to independence arising from social attitudes, disabling systems and environments. (Campbell and Oliver 1996; Oliver 1993). Further more this pproach stresses the need for attention to the service users ethnicity, culture and history because together they form their identity and influence life options open to them, and the attitudes of some people towards them and their abilities. Throughout this experience I have been able to learn about the importance of drawing on theoretical frameworks to understand a person’s current behaviour and the effects of his life experiences. According to Freud behaviours driven by th e id are largely unconscious and describe impulsive behaviours that can lead to all kind of difficulties. What this critical incident analysis has highlighted to me is that social workers and other professionals have a responsibility to reach decisions about intervention, protection and safeguarding in a series of situations where evidence may be unclear or contested. Baldwin, N. and Walker, L in Adams et al (2005) say that it is important to recognise that risk can be assessed through a process, which is a collaborative and undertaken within a legislative and organisational framework. From my experience at this particular placement I can draw upon a number of different things that have made me question my own learning and development. It had made me wonder weather I see things differently to others, and also whether my views and opinions would be appreciated. From this shadowing experience I have most definitely changed my views on substance misuse and the kind of stereotypes I had around it. I feel that it has made me value my life more however value the people that are in my life even greater. This experience enabled me to see the importance of ‘critical thinking’ to find a workable solution (Brown, K, pg 12). Throughout the conversation the GP and the social Worker ‘reached for feeling’ and put feeling into words. I feel that I was very judgemental before actually meeting the service user, and I realise that this is a very bad habit as a Social Worker, however this helped me in my development and learning. This also made me think about other factors that may affect how people ‘label’ others such as; discrimination and oppression. I was also able to observe how different agencies work together in order to provide better care for the service user. In this case the GP worked alongside the job centre, the pharmacy, the social worker and the key worker. ‘They can offer service users a more flexible approach and share expertise in order to give them a better outcome’. (Tennyson,1998). When the service user had left the GP had a ‘de briefing session’. This was also a time for me to ask any questions, this is something that I have practiced through reflection time and feedback time with my peers and tutors. The importance of ‘tuning in’ was explained to me. ‘Research informs practice’.

Shiseidos Brief History Essay Example for Free

Shiseidos Brief History Essay In 1902, Arinobu was inspired to introduce the American culture to the Japanese public by bringing the Japan’s first soda fountain. The fortune was on his side as it later grew into the Shiseido Parlour restaurant business which makes him introduce another rare production in Japan at the time, ice cream. The foundation of Shiseido laid over a century ago, its pioneering spirit that combines eastern aesthetics with western science and business technology, continues to live on today to serves as the underlying philosophy of Shiseido’s corporate activities. Shiseido established it Five Management Principles in 1921. Quality First: Shiseidos constant quest for the highest possible quality standards has supported its activities for close to a century. Coexistence and Co-prosperity: Shiseido seeks to share its benefits with all companies and individuals associated with Shiseido. Respect for Consumers: Shiseido pursuits must be thoroughly consumer-oriented. Corporate Stability: Shiseido must be built on a firm infrastructure with long-range goals. Sincerity: Shiseido business transactions must be conducted loyally, honestly, and respectfully. In 1923, Shiseido began forming its chain store network. To meet its five management principles, the storeowners were provided special training to assure that consumers across the nation could enjoy products and service of consistent high standards. With their high spirit and commitment, the network has grown to approximately 25,000 outlets today. On June 14th of 1927, Shiseido, formerly a limited partnership, became a joint stock company under Arinobu Fukuhara’s third son, Shinzo’s leadership. Shiseidos first president, Shinzo Fukuhara graduated from Columbia Universitys Faculty of Medicine. During his stay in the United States, from 1908, he worked at a suburban New York drugstore and later a cosmetics factory of an American pharmaceutical manufacturer. Under his leadership, the groundwork for a distinctive Shiseido approach to business and creation was formed. To serve Shiseido’s loyal customers better, they have formed the Camellia Club in 1937. Corresponding with formation of the club, Shiseido issued a fashion periodical, HANATSUBAKI (Camellia). The magazine takes its roots from Japan’s first cultural magazines by a cosmetics company, which were issued by Shiseido from 1924 for distribution to customers through the nationwide network of chain stores. This magazine offered articles on domestic and overseas fashion, travel, and the arts. Essays and commentaries by leading literary figures of the time were also featured in this magazine, which is still issued on a monthly basis by Shiseido today. The Japanese Camellia Club has grown to boast a membership of approximately 9 million members presently. In the year of Malaysia’s independence, 1957, Shiseido has taken their first step overseas in Taiwan with exports to Singapore and Hong Kong following closely after. In 1962, Shiseido expanded to Hawaii and in 1965; it established Shiseido Cosmetics America to commence sales in the mainland. European sales began with Italy in 1968 and officially in Oceania with New Zealand in 1971. Stepping into 1980’s, Shiseido has realized the importance of brand image and Serge Lutens from France was being appointed as its international image creator in order to support its expanding global distribution network. Shiseido’s history of advertising and image creation has always been one of evolution and renewal. When Shiseido sought new global imagery for its international marketing it turned in an entirely advanced direction, that of a collaboration with Serge Lutens who established a reputation as a hair and makeup artist for Vogue. As we can see from the brief background of Shiseido in the early years, they have diversified their business from pharmacy to restaurant and gradually into cosmetics and toiletries. Today, Shiseido sales are mainly generated from its main business category of cosmetics, which makes up about 78. 4% of total sales with toiletries at 10. 7% and other categories such as salon, products, foods and pharmaceuticals at 10. 9%. 26% of total consolidated sales were generated by Shiseido’s international activities in fiscal year 2004. Individual shareholders constitute more than 97% of the total number of shareholders, an exceedingly high percentage for a major Japanese company. Marketing its products in 65 countries and regions globally including Europe and Americas as well as Asia/Oceania, Shiseido aims to become â€Å"a global player representing Asia with its origins in Japan. † To become a â€Å"global player†, Shiseido has taken the international business challenges integrating with the operations performance objectives into their global operations in the early years. Reviewing their 5 management principles written in 1921, it was pretty similar with the operation performance objectives in trend today.

Kautilyas Arthashastra and War

Kautilyas Arthashastra and War CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. Arthashastra Kautilya on War. Kautilya was a proponent of a welfare state but definitely encouraged war for preserving the power of the state. Kautilyas Arthashastra is a book of pure logic, not taking any religious aspect into account. It deals with the various subjects directly and with razor like sharpness. The Arthashastra totally contains 5363 Sutras, 15 books, 150 chapters, and 180 Sections. The 15 Books contained in the Arthashastra can be classified in the following manner: Book 1, as a book on Fundamentals of Management, Book 2 dealing with Economics, Books 3, 4 and 5 on Law, Books 6, 7, 8 describes Foreign Policies. Books 9 to 14 concerns subjects on War. The 15th book deals with the methodology and devices used in writing the Arthashastra. What is interesting to note is that the topic of war is the last subject in the Arthashastra. War is always the last option. However, a war in certain cases is unavoidable, hence, preparation and maintenance of the army, the right moves in the battle field and warfar e strategies all are essential in the defence of a country, subjects which Kautilya tackles with the extra sensory precision. Economics in Statecraft and War. Kautilya thought that the possession of power and happiness in a state makes a king superior hence a king should always strive to augment his power. Kautilya propounded that war is natural for a state. He said that, Power is strength and strength changes the minds[2].Economic power has helped shape statecraft. This element of power is very flexible. Thi s aspect of the power is one which Arthashastra concentrates on and has highlighted Artha, the economics of the state in the pursuit of power. The quest for power is driven by the satisfaction of the king and his subjects in all the spheres of material well being and social acceptance. This can be achieved by a progressive and robust economy. A corollary to this fact is that the economics of a state can be used to progress the influence of the state over international issues and also used to augment the war waging potential of the state. Whether a nation has a large or small military, its leadership does understand economics. Economics is a great tool to create conditions for further action or force a nation to change behaviour. There are constraints prevelant in the pursuit of sound economy to further the war waging capability of a state and in turn achieve te power . the resolution of these constraints is the enigma which Kautilya unraveled through Arthashastra. 2. Kautilya presents that for a King to attain these three goals he must create wealth, have armies and should conquer the kingdoms and enlarge the size of his state. This is quite interesting because he in a way does believe that a states superiority is in its military and economic might which is what later philosophers and rulers have followed. In the case of war, Kautilya advocates the King to be closely involved in the science of war. 3. Classifications of War. Kautilya advocated three types of war: Open war, Concealed war and the Silent War[3]. Open war he describes as the war fought between states, concealed war as one which is similar to guerilla war and Silent war which is fought on a continued basis inside the kingdom so that the power of the King does not get diluted. He believed that there were three types of kings who go into warfare and it is important to understand the distinction between the types of kings and the appropriate warfare strategy to be selected. 4. Kautilya propounded that state is not considered a massive entity but as one which combines various internal constituents the king , the fortified city ,the countryside, the treasury and the army. The power with which a state can promote its own interests over other states in the neighbourhood depends on how close to ideal the internal constituents are. The four devices Kautilya used for deriving practical advice were: relative power, deviations from the ideal, classification by the type of motivation and the influence of the unpredictable. This is the core what Arthashastra addresses as the endeavour is to resolve all the constraints that arise in the quest of the state to gain ascendency and enhance its power. 5. War fighting tactics. Kautilya was also very harsh in narrating the exact methods of fighting a war and use of various tools to reduce the strength of a state. Kautilya wrote in detail explaining the war strategy because he was a strong proponent of social structure. He vehemently defends the state and believes that religion and morals are supposed to serve the state. In Kautilyas concept of war, chivalry does not have any place and he is a realist. Kautilya in his Arthashastra and believes that war is a means to an end for wealth and stability. He provided the understanding to resolve all the constraints which emerge to achieve the ends. Kautilya has argued that the primary constraint that a state faces is the economic constraints and many a war has been lost for want of resources. The Arthashastra has guided the king in eliminating the constraints, primarily the economic constraints in the furtherance of its interests. The use of economic strength as a means of statess power has also been highlighted by Kautilya. 6. Kautilya also took the societal structure and Kings power as given and never challenged it. His focus was not on war per se but on the strategy and tactics of war which elaborates in his work. In describing his opinion on war, he has been very right in saying that a state which seeks power is in war all the time and economy is the most definitive aspect which governs the quest of the state for power. CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY Statement of the Problem 1. The aim of this paper is to investigate the modus operandi for the resolution of the economic constraints, imposed in an armed conflict during the Arthashastra period and its concurrence in the present times. Justification for the Study 2. Constraints in War. Armed conflict has many facets attached to it and it is not a mere attack and capture as the folklore puts it to be. The constraints as they emerge, from the time of planning of a battle till the time the armies face each other at the outbreak of the hostilities, are what the commander in the battlefield has to counter and work out the resolution of each of the prevalent constraints. The constraints as defined for the evaluation of this research is akin to the risks or uncertainties as they present themselves in the battlefield and which may govern the outcome of the war or the projection of the true power of the nation state. The constraints present as tangible constraints and also intangible blocks which have to be resolved in order to progress the war and ultimately achieve victory. The tangible constraints can be classified as the economic requirements for war effort to sustain and the logistics support required for the armed forces and the intangibles are morale, leadership and the training of the troops. 3. Evaluating Constraints. The fog of war has prompted strategists throughout history to grapple with the concept of constraints/risk and methodologies for its assessment. There will always be uncertainty. It often will be immeasurable. The very nature of war and conflict and the increasingly complex strategic environment ensures that this is so. Is risk/constraint assessment simply the .comfort level that senior planners experience as they assess key variables? [6] Strategic risks then is the probability of failure in achieving a strategic objective at an acceptable cost. The concept is simple to articulate and easy to understand. But, as in war, the simplest things in strategy are the most difficult. 4. Constraints Management Arthashastra . The Arthashastra is essentially a treatise on the art of government and specially focuses on aspects of internal administration and foreign policy. It has been translated as Science of Politics, Treatise on Polity or the Science of Political Economy. These have been translated over time in the subjects of Timeless Laws of Politics, Economy, Diplomacy and War. Kautilyas treatise encapsulates in many ways, the complexity of the modern times with the constraints faced during war being the same as were relevant in older times. The problems that existed then, persist in a more widespread and magnified manner in the contemporary world. The principles of Constraint resolution in the Military strategy followed by Kautilya are also relevant in the contemporary world. Study of Kautilyas war strategy will provide an insight into the knowledge of warfare in ancient India and would also throw up important aspects of the constraints to warfare in the moder n world, besides enhancing understanding and pride in our country and its thinkers. 5. Hypothesis. The growth of the nation state has been based on the gain of the economic power and the shift in the economic potential. This has resulted in the economics of war emerging as the single most important constraint in the war waging potential of a nation state. The concurrence of the economic power with the military power of a nation state has been the cornerstone of the present day world powers. Kautilya in Arthashastra had realised the prominence of economy in the statecraft and the war strategy. How relevant those postulates are in the modern day strength of a nation state? The ability of the state to exert its influence for the furtherance of the national interests has been defined by the resolution of the economic constraints. The military has become the national instrument that can enforce the economic objective and thus the military power of a nation. Therefore the role of the economic power and the resolution of the economic constraints of a nation are primary for the acceptance of a Nation-State as a world power. 6. Scope. The scope of this paper is restricted to study and analysis of the economics of war. The financial constraints in the war potential of the State and the methods adopted by Kautilya to resolve those constraints. The study will attempt to identify possible constraints in the war potential of the State and present the relevance of Arthashastra in constraint management with the modern day constraint resolution. It will be further endeavoured to understand the lacunae in the present day approach and investigate the Arthashastra for solutions. Thereafter, the paper will focus on assessing the perceived link between economic power of the state and the military power and how one is derived from the other. The resolution of the economic constraints as practiced during Kautilyas time and in the modern times will also be discussed. 7. Methods of Data Collection. There are many books written translating the Arthashastra. Modern Warfare strategy has many parallels in the theories as propounded by Kautilya. Research on this topic will be mostly based on the translations of Arthashastra and its relevance with the modern day approach to the resolution of the economic constraints in the war waging potential of the nation state. Sources are likely to include the following:- (a) Books written by eminent authors and translation of the Arthashastra by various authors. (b) Articles in periodicals and Journals. (c) Reports of International strategists and researchers on Arthashastra. (d) Websites featuring proceedings of various conferences and meetings on the subject. (f) Papers published or presented by various organisations on the subject. 8. Organisation of the Dissertation. This study is envisaged to be organised under the following chapters:- (a) Introduction. (b) Methodology. (c) Constraints in warfare -Drawing parallels with Arthashastra. (d) Arthashastra approach to economics of war. (e) Derivation of Military power from economic power. (f) Resolution of economic constraints to war potential. (g) Conclusion CHAPTER III CONSTRAINTS IN WARFARE DRAWING PARALLELS WITH ARTHASHASTRA 1. Interests of the nation state. The behavior of a nation-state is rooted in the pursuit, protection, and promotion of its interests. The interests of the nation state are to be accurately identified to understand much of its behavior vis-ÃÆ'  -vis other states and actors in the international system. All states have common interests like its territory, its people, and its sovereignty. While forces outside their own boundaries affect all countries large and powerful, small and weak, a certain level of sovereignty is critical to the notion of national interests. A country that is unable to exercise effective control over its territory and its peoples, relatively free from the intrusion of other nation-states into its internal affairs, is lacking in this critical element of sovereignty. War is an instrument of national policy, albeit a violent one. 2. Arthashastra view point. Kautilyas Arthashastra was a science of politics intended to teach a wise king how to govern. In this work, Kautilya offers wide-ranging and truly fascinating discussions on war and diplomacy, including his wish to have his king become a world conqueror, his analysis of which kingdoms are natural allies and which are inevitable enemies, his willingness to make treaties he knew he would break, his doctrine of silent war or a war of assassination against an unsuspecting king, his approval of secret agents who killed enemy leaders and sowed discord among them, his view of women as weapons of war, his use of religion and superstition to bolster his troops and demoralize enemy soldiers, the spread of disinformation, and his humane treatment of conquered soldiers and subjects. 3. Kautilya thought there was a science of warfare, presumably part of a larger science of politics. Kautilya advised the king not to leave military matters entirely to others: Infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants should carry out practice in the arts outside (the city) at sun-rise. The king should constantly attend to that, and should frequently inspect their arts.[9] Open war is obvious, and concealed war is what we call guerrilla warfare, but silent war is a kind of fighting that no other thinker could propound and thus Kautiliya was much ahead of his times and this makes his thinking relevant even today. Silent war is a kind of warfare with another kingdom in which the king and his ministersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ and unknowingly, the peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ all act publicly as if they were at peace with the opposing kingdom, but all the while secret agents and spies are assassinating important leaders in the other kingdom, creating divisions among key ministers and classes, and s preading propaganda and disinformation. 4. Kautilya advised the king that When he is superior in troops, when secret instigations are made (in the enemys camp), when precautions are taken about the season, (and) when he is on land suitable to himself, he should engage in an open fight. In the reverse case, (he should resort to) concealed fighting.[12] 5. Overriding the constraints. Speaking of justice to an enemy about to conquer is the last tactic of the weak, willing to try all tactics, even desperate ones, Kautilya made up a powerful speech to be given by a weak king to the king about to conquer, a speech offering a mixture of moral exhortation and arguments based on the self-interest of the conqueror. In this speech, Kautilya depicted an envoy saying to the conquering king that he should accept a treaty and pay regard to [his] spiritual and material well-being; that conquering a kingdom willing to surrender on reasonable terms is an impious act; that battle is not in the conquering kings self-interest, since to fight with brave men who have given up all hope of life is a rash deed and the conqueror will lose troops and material good; that such a conquest will only unite his enemies all the more; that the conquering kings enemies are only waiting for him to be weakened in order to attack; that he himself is risking death; that war itself in which men on each side die is an impious act; and that he should not listen to enemies masquerading as friends who are giving him false advice as to his real self-interest.[13] Kautilya demonstrated the realities of diplomacy and war as well as the ineffectiveness of moral pleas when confronted by a superior power. Kautilya wanted legions, but he wanted them preceded by elephants, which acted in the ancient world a bit like modern tanks. 6. Kautilya considered the treasury most valuable in raising an army, procuring equipment (including elephants), and preparing for war. After the treasury and the army, Kautilya focused on the importance of the fort, on which depends the treasury, the army, silent war, restraint of ones own party, use of armed forces, receiving allied troops, and warding off enemy troops and forest tribes. And in the absence of a fort, the treasury will fall into the hands of enemies, those with forts are not exterminated.[15] 7. Constraint resolution. Kautilya was consistent in ranking the importance of the treasury, the army, and forts, but it seems that the people, or a popular army, are the most important of all. As he put it, one should seek a fortress with men.[19] 8. Kautilya apparently believed that an army of kshatriyas was best; warriors were supposed to find their highest duty and pleasure by dying in battle. Kautilya clearly argued that sections of the army should consist mostly of persons from the same region, caste or profession. It was a very clever idea to be mooted as common sense, shows that he is suggesting that men of an army should know one another, that an army of friends fighting side by side is the most difficult to defeat. On the subject of the kings location during battle, for example, he wrote: A bare army, without standards, consisting of warriors related as fathers, sons and brothers, should be the place for the king. An elephant or a chariot should be the vehicle for the king, guarded by cavalry. (Kautilya wanted a man who looked like the king to lead the army into battle.) And thus, a kings power, for Kautilya, is in the end tied to the power and popular energy of the people, without which a king can be conquered, for n ot being rooted among his subjects, a king becomes easy to uproot.[20] Although Kautilya wrote of using money to raise an army and even of purchasing heroic men, he was not advocating mercenaries who fought only for pay, but he was merely outlining the cost of paying, supplying, and feeding soldiers. He believed that hereditary troops are better than hired troops; in other words, troops made of men born in the kingdom and thus loyal to the king since birth are better than strangers fighting for money. 9. Contemporary school of thought. While military power may be the primary tool a nation uses to wage war, it is not the only one available. Military power, together with economic and political power, may be used to impose ones will upon an opponent. These other elements of national power, such as economic or political, are linked with military action at the national strategic level and passed to the operational and tactical levels of military actions through constraints or limitations on the use of force. Nevertheless, these other elements of power are not fully integrated at the lower levels of war. In the Marxist tradition, Svechin included the possibility of war on economic and social fronts as well as on a military front. [21] The actions along all fronts must be fully integrated and in accord with the political goals of the struggle. The use of diplomatic efforts to preclude and enemy alliance or a second hostile (military) front and economic efforts to insure sufficient financ ial resources for the conduct of combat operations. 10. While Kautilya had propounded the postulates for constraint management in warfare in the ancient times but the relevance with the contemporary thought is startling. Military power being only one of the instruments of national power has been highlighted by Kautilya and the same thought is holding today. The resolution of the constraints and overriding of the bottlenecks faced by the commander in the battlefield have their genesis in the employment of all the instruments of national power towards conflict resolution and that is why Arthashastra has been regarded as the epitome of statecraft in all the spheres. If decisive military force is used only as a last resort, after extensive diplomatic, economic, political, and even military power short of actual war have failed to break the will of the enemy, a quick and well placed application of military force would leave little opportunity for the implementation of further nonmilitary initiative. One must never lose sight of the overall objective of warfare which is to get the enemy to do ones will. This may be best achieved through a thoughtful and complete linkage of all elements of national power. With that linkage brought down to the operational level, chances for a long-lasting victory will increase dramatically. This is where Arthashastra and the present day war strategy are concomitant. CHAPTER IV ARTHASHASTRA APPROACH TO ECONOMICS OF WAR 1. Economics of the nation state. Economic power has become a very powerful tool to enhance the capabilities of a nation and limit those of an adversary. However, as nations become more intertwined through globalisation, they become more vulnerable to disruptions in their economies, manmade or natural, due to reliance on foreign sources of raw materials, components, finished products, or key services. A nation can also use its economy to try to defeat another power. The nation can use its economic power in attempts to destroy a targets capability to take certain actions or destroy its ability to project power. Although physical defeat of the enemy is more often associated with military operations, economic means are also viable to support the elimination of a nations ability to take certain actions. 2. A nations ability to provide resources to research, develop, and further educate their people can lead to new applications of science and knowledge to solve problems in other words, technology. Technological advances can replace existing weapon and support systems to enhance or expand war fighting capability. Acquiring technology through a nations own human resources or with capital resources can allow the nation to make great leaps in economic progress. 3. Arthashastra view of economy as precursor to military power. Kautilya emphasised that, the three kinds of powers intellectual, compelling, motivating are essentially and unavoidably required to be developed and employed in a manner that they complement each other. None can be used in isolation. According to Kautilya the main aim of any state is to increase ones power, mainly at the cost of the natural enemy. This increase in power is essentially the first step in the realisation of the ambition to conquer the world. However, Kautilya also specifically mentions that the most important factor that must be weighed before starting is the gain expected from the confrontation and the losses likely to be suffered. Normally, the gain that is to accrue should far outweigh the losses in men, animals and expenses in cash and grains. Thus Kautilya professed a thoughtful approach to the cause of expanding ones kingdom and always kept the focus on resolution of the economic constraints in the w ar waging capability of the state. He has also stressed that the king is duty bound to ensure, that the people of his kingdom are happy and content, because, a happy kingdom is likely to be prosperous. He further states that a prosperous and wealthy state is unlikely to succumb to another even in case of a conflict. 4. Kosa or the Treasury. The fifth most important element of the state is the treasury according to Kautilya. All activities of the state depend on finance and therefore sufficient attention needs to be given to the treasury. Kautilya considered the treasury most valuable in raising an army, procuring equipment (including elephants), and preparing for war. After the treasury and the army, Kautilya focused on the importance of the fort, on which depends the treasury, the army, silent war, restraint of ones own party, use of armed forces, receiving allied troops, and warding off enemy troops and forest tribes. Kautilya lays down various causes that may contribute to the growth or reduction of the treasury. Kautilya says The wealth of the state shall be one acquired lawfully either by inheritance or by the kings own efforts. He further adds that the treasury should be rich enough to withstand any calamity especially when the state has no income for a long time. 5. Managing the economy for power Arthashastra approach. Management of the state necessitated realism, not idealism. It required the prudence and precise calculation of measures undertaken alongside their short and long-term consequences, which formulated the theoretical beginnings of economics: Wealth will slip away from that childish man who constantly consults the stars: the only guiding star of wealth is itself; what can the stars of the sky do? Man, without wealth, does not get it even after a hundred attempts. Just as elephants are needed to catch elephants, so does wealth capture more wealth.[22] Public welfare was contingent upon the strength of the state. The latter was achieved by internal development or territorial expansion, both of which were realized through power.[24] Hence, the prime motive of the state was the never-ending pursuit of artha. It is only after dedicating its energies to this end, can the state or king then move on to fulfilling dharma and kama. As such, the Arthashastra provides extensive coverage on the overall economy, which includes: infrastructure (roadwork, irrigation, forestry, and fortification), weights and measurements, labor and employment, commerce and trade, commodities and agriculture, land use and property laws, money and coinage, interest rates and loan markets, tariffs and taxes, and government expenditures and the treasury. The high level of detail dedicated to these areas demonstrates the remarkable organisation and centralisation of the state idealised in the Arthashastra, and it also supports the view that the information contained in the text is a compilation of works that have endured over long periods of trial and er ror. 6. The Arthashastra is surprisingly calculated on every minute detail and economic function the exact number of panas[25] is provided for every salaried position, legal ramification, commodity, and livestock. Economics was regulated through such central planning and the highly detailed attempts at identifying the optimal amount for every economic function stresses this constant strive towards efficiently improving the overall utility and welfare of society. Along with prudence and careful calculation, the state is advised to be extremely active or energetic in managing the economy, as the Arthashastra states that, The root of material well-being is activity, of material disaster its reverse. In the absence of activity, there is certain destruction of what is obtained and of what is not yet received. By activity reward is obtained, and one also secures abundance of riches.Similarly, a different verse in the same chapter advocates the direction of such activity towards improving publi c welfare. Though seemingly liberal and humanitarian, this too had a very important economic basis. Hence, dedicating resources to the lower rungs of society also strengthened the peripheries of the state, which in turn actuated territorial expansion. Furthermore, providing amenities for the poor masses indirectly stimulated population growth, and thus, the overall growth of the state and economy in the long run. Hence, there is a lot of truth in the verses in which the Arthashastra states that it is the people who constitute a kingdom; like a barren cow, a kingdom without people yields nothing. The emphasis on population growth for indirectly achieving economic prosperity is also hinted elsewhere in the text, in which the Arthashastra strongly prohibits premarital sex and adultery and instead encourages fertility via rewards and punishments framed within the legal system. Central planning was directed towards maintaining stability, order, and efficiency in the economy. 7. Kautilyas Principle and Aim of Economy Artha can therefore be summed up as Peace can be maintained by making war difficult and costly for the enemy through the balance of power achieved through alliances. 8. Contemporary perspective. Whilst the basis of exerting power of any country has been that of expansion in the last twenty odd years the focus has shifted from territorial expansion to one of economic expansion. There are a number of examples of countries or coalitions trying to exert pressure on other countries to ensure the protection of their own economic interests. The engagements between all the countries of the world bear testimony to the fact that almost all parties have been trying to protect their own interests in dealing with others. The principles enumerated by Kautilya in his policy of Samdhi or Treaty have almost universal application today. Countries today are indulging in more and more treaties or accords than ever before to safeguard their own interests. 9. Kautilya also mentions that war should be declared as a last resort and that all other means like sama, dana, and bheda (conciliation, gifts/bribes, dissension) should be implemented towards averting war. In other words Kautilya prefers putting pressure on the enemy without breaking the peace. These very principles have been laid down in Chapter I of the United Nations Charter, where article I states To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace. 10. This brings forth the justification of the well being of the society as the predominant factor since the ancient times till date. Also, the diversion of the resources meant for the well being of the society towards the war waging potential without the exploitation of all the options towards resolution is being despised upon. This was relevant during Kautilyas times and is as relevant today. Though economy is a major constraint in the war waging potential of a nation state, and all efforts are made by the state to strengthen this instrument of national power prior to gaining the military ascendency, it is also proving to be a major restraint in controllong the expansionist attitude of states since ancient times. CHAPTER V DERIVATION OF MILITARY POWER FROM ECONOMIC POWER 1. Economic power. Economic power can be defined broadly as the capacity to influence other states through economic means. It is composed of a countrys industrial base, natural resources, capital, technology, geographic position, health system and education system. 2. Military power. Military power is the capacity to use force or the threat of force to influence other states. Components of military power include number of divisions, armaments, organisation, training, equipment, readiness, deployment and morale. 3. Power is an elusive concept. In the historical perspective, military power has been paramount and economic power a luxury. This has slowly changed to the point that the two roles have become interchangeable. A countrys military capability is derived from its economic capacity. A countrys economic capacity also de Kautilyas Arthashastra and War Kautilyas Arthashastra and War CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. Arthashastra Kautilya on War. Kautilya was a proponent of a welfare state but definitely encouraged war for preserving the power of the state. Kautilyas Arthashastra is a book of pure logic, not taking any religious aspect into account. It deals with the various subjects directly and with razor like sharpness. The Arthashastra totally contains 5363 Sutras, 15 books, 150 chapters, and 180 Sections. The 15 Books contained in the Arthashastra can be classified in the following manner: Book 1, as a book on Fundamentals of Management, Book 2 dealing with Economics, Books 3, 4 and 5 on Law, Books 6, 7, 8 describes Foreign Policies. Books 9 to 14 concerns subjects on War. The 15th book deals with the methodology and devices used in writing the Arthashastra. What is interesting to note is that the topic of war is the last subject in the Arthashastra. War is always the last option. However, a war in certain cases is unavoidable, hence, preparation and maintenance of the army, the right moves in the battle field and warfar e strategies all are essential in the defence of a country, subjects which Kautilya tackles with the extra sensory precision. Economics in Statecraft and War. Kautilya thought that the possession of power and happiness in a state makes a king superior hence a king should always strive to augment his power. Kautilya propounded that war is natural for a state. He said that, Power is strength and strength changes the minds[2].Economic power has helped shape statecraft. This element of power is very flexible. Thi s aspect of the power is one which Arthashastra concentrates on and has highlighted Artha, the economics of the state in the pursuit of power. The quest for power is driven by the satisfaction of the king and his subjects in all the spheres of material well being and social acceptance. This can be achieved by a progressive and robust economy. A corollary to this fact is that the economics of a state can be used to progress the influence of the state over international issues and also used to augment the war waging potential of the state. Whether a nation has a large or small military, its leadership does understand economics. Economics is a great tool to create conditions for further action or force a nation to change behaviour. There are constraints prevelant in the pursuit of sound economy to further the war waging capability of a state and in turn achieve te power . the resolution of these constraints is the enigma which Kautilya unraveled through Arthashastra. 2. Kautilya presents that for a King to attain these three goals he must create wealth, have armies and should conquer the kingdoms and enlarge the size of his state. This is quite interesting because he in a way does believe that a states superiority is in its military and economic might which is what later philosophers and rulers have followed. In the case of war, Kautilya advocates the King to be closely involved in the science of war. 3. Classifications of War. Kautilya advocated three types of war: Open war, Concealed war and the Silent War[3]. Open war he describes as the war fought between states, concealed war as one which is similar to guerilla war and Silent war which is fought on a continued basis inside the kingdom so that the power of the King does not get diluted. He believed that there were three types of kings who go into warfare and it is important to understand the distinction between the types of kings and the appropriate warfare strategy to be selected. 4. Kautilya propounded that state is not considered a massive entity but as one which combines various internal constituents the king , the fortified city ,the countryside, the treasury and the army. The power with which a state can promote its own interests over other states in the neighbourhood depends on how close to ideal the internal constituents are. The four devices Kautilya used for deriving practical advice were: relative power, deviations from the ideal, classification by the type of motivation and the influence of the unpredictable. This is the core what Arthashastra addresses as the endeavour is to resolve all the constraints that arise in the quest of the state to gain ascendency and enhance its power. 5. War fighting tactics. Kautilya was also very harsh in narrating the exact methods of fighting a war and use of various tools to reduce the strength of a state. Kautilya wrote in detail explaining the war strategy because he was a strong proponent of social structure. He vehemently defends the state and believes that religion and morals are supposed to serve the state. In Kautilyas concept of war, chivalry does not have any place and he is a realist. Kautilya in his Arthashastra and believes that war is a means to an end for wealth and stability. He provided the understanding to resolve all the constraints which emerge to achieve the ends. Kautilya has argued that the primary constraint that a state faces is the economic constraints and many a war has been lost for want of resources. The Arthashastra has guided the king in eliminating the constraints, primarily the economic constraints in the furtherance of its interests. The use of economic strength as a means of statess power has also been highlighted by Kautilya. 6. Kautilya also took the societal structure and Kings power as given and never challenged it. His focus was not on war per se but on the strategy and tactics of war which elaborates in his work. In describing his opinion on war, he has been very right in saying that a state which seeks power is in war all the time and economy is the most definitive aspect which governs the quest of the state for power. CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY Statement of the Problem 1. The aim of this paper is to investigate the modus operandi for the resolution of the economic constraints, imposed in an armed conflict during the Arthashastra period and its concurrence in the present times. Justification for the Study 2. Constraints in War. Armed conflict has many facets attached to it and it is not a mere attack and capture as the folklore puts it to be. The constraints as they emerge, from the time of planning of a battle till the time the armies face each other at the outbreak of the hostilities, are what the commander in the battlefield has to counter and work out the resolution of each of the prevalent constraints. The constraints as defined for the evaluation of this research is akin to the risks or uncertainties as they present themselves in the battlefield and which may govern the outcome of the war or the projection of the true power of the nation state. The constraints present as tangible constraints and also intangible blocks which have to be resolved in order to progress the war and ultimately achieve victory. The tangible constraints can be classified as the economic requirements for war effort to sustain and the logistics support required for the armed forces and the intangibles are morale, leadership and the training of the troops. 3. Evaluating Constraints. The fog of war has prompted strategists throughout history to grapple with the concept of constraints/risk and methodologies for its assessment. There will always be uncertainty. It often will be immeasurable. The very nature of war and conflict and the increasingly complex strategic environment ensures that this is so. Is risk/constraint assessment simply the .comfort level that senior planners experience as they assess key variables? [6] Strategic risks then is the probability of failure in achieving a strategic objective at an acceptable cost. The concept is simple to articulate and easy to understand. But, as in war, the simplest things in strategy are the most difficult. 4. Constraints Management Arthashastra . The Arthashastra is essentially a treatise on the art of government and specially focuses on aspects of internal administration and foreign policy. It has been translated as Science of Politics, Treatise on Polity or the Science of Political Economy. These have been translated over time in the subjects of Timeless Laws of Politics, Economy, Diplomacy and War. Kautilyas treatise encapsulates in many ways, the complexity of the modern times with the constraints faced during war being the same as were relevant in older times. The problems that existed then, persist in a more widespread and magnified manner in the contemporary world. The principles of Constraint resolution in the Military strategy followed by Kautilya are also relevant in the contemporary world. Study of Kautilyas war strategy will provide an insight into the knowledge of warfare in ancient India and would also throw up important aspects of the constraints to warfare in the moder n world, besides enhancing understanding and pride in our country and its thinkers. 5. Hypothesis. The growth of the nation state has been based on the gain of the economic power and the shift in the economic potential. This has resulted in the economics of war emerging as the single most important constraint in the war waging potential of a nation state. The concurrence of the economic power with the military power of a nation state has been the cornerstone of the present day world powers. Kautilya in Arthashastra had realised the prominence of economy in the statecraft and the war strategy. How relevant those postulates are in the modern day strength of a nation state? The ability of the state to exert its influence for the furtherance of the national interests has been defined by the resolution of the economic constraints. The military has become the national instrument that can enforce the economic objective and thus the military power of a nation. Therefore the role of the economic power and the resolution of the economic constraints of a nation are primary for the acceptance of a Nation-State as a world power. 6. Scope. The scope of this paper is restricted to study and analysis of the economics of war. The financial constraints in the war potential of the State and the methods adopted by Kautilya to resolve those constraints. The study will attempt to identify possible constraints in the war potential of the State and present the relevance of Arthashastra in constraint management with the modern day constraint resolution. It will be further endeavoured to understand the lacunae in the present day approach and investigate the Arthashastra for solutions. Thereafter, the paper will focus on assessing the perceived link between economic power of the state and the military power and how one is derived from the other. The resolution of the economic constraints as practiced during Kautilyas time and in the modern times will also be discussed. 7. Methods of Data Collection. There are many books written translating the Arthashastra. Modern Warfare strategy has many parallels in the theories as propounded by Kautilya. Research on this topic will be mostly based on the translations of Arthashastra and its relevance with the modern day approach to the resolution of the economic constraints in the war waging potential of the nation state. Sources are likely to include the following:- (a) Books written by eminent authors and translation of the Arthashastra by various authors. (b) Articles in periodicals and Journals. (c) Reports of International strategists and researchers on Arthashastra. (d) Websites featuring proceedings of various conferences and meetings on the subject. (f) Papers published or presented by various organisations on the subject. 8. Organisation of the Dissertation. This study is envisaged to be organised under the following chapters:- (a) Introduction. (b) Methodology. (c) Constraints in warfare -Drawing parallels with Arthashastra. (d) Arthashastra approach to economics of war. (e) Derivation of Military power from economic power. (f) Resolution of economic constraints to war potential. (g) Conclusion CHAPTER III CONSTRAINTS IN WARFARE DRAWING PARALLELS WITH ARTHASHASTRA 1. Interests of the nation state. The behavior of a nation-state is rooted in the pursuit, protection, and promotion of its interests. The interests of the nation state are to be accurately identified to understand much of its behavior vis-ÃÆ'  -vis other states and actors in the international system. All states have common interests like its territory, its people, and its sovereignty. While forces outside their own boundaries affect all countries large and powerful, small and weak, a certain level of sovereignty is critical to the notion of national interests. A country that is unable to exercise effective control over its territory and its peoples, relatively free from the intrusion of other nation-states into its internal affairs, is lacking in this critical element of sovereignty. War is an instrument of national policy, albeit a violent one. 2. Arthashastra view point. Kautilyas Arthashastra was a science of politics intended to teach a wise king how to govern. In this work, Kautilya offers wide-ranging and truly fascinating discussions on war and diplomacy, including his wish to have his king become a world conqueror, his analysis of which kingdoms are natural allies and which are inevitable enemies, his willingness to make treaties he knew he would break, his doctrine of silent war or a war of assassination against an unsuspecting king, his approval of secret agents who killed enemy leaders and sowed discord among them, his view of women as weapons of war, his use of religion and superstition to bolster his troops and demoralize enemy soldiers, the spread of disinformation, and his humane treatment of conquered soldiers and subjects. 3. Kautilya thought there was a science of warfare, presumably part of a larger science of politics. Kautilya advised the king not to leave military matters entirely to others: Infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants should carry out practice in the arts outside (the city) at sun-rise. The king should constantly attend to that, and should frequently inspect their arts.[9] Open war is obvious, and concealed war is what we call guerrilla warfare, but silent war is a kind of fighting that no other thinker could propound and thus Kautiliya was much ahead of his times and this makes his thinking relevant even today. Silent war is a kind of warfare with another kingdom in which the king and his ministersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ and unknowingly, the peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ all act publicly as if they were at peace with the opposing kingdom, but all the while secret agents and spies are assassinating important leaders in the other kingdom, creating divisions among key ministers and classes, and s preading propaganda and disinformation. 4. Kautilya advised the king that When he is superior in troops, when secret instigations are made (in the enemys camp), when precautions are taken about the season, (and) when he is on land suitable to himself, he should engage in an open fight. In the reverse case, (he should resort to) concealed fighting.[12] 5. Overriding the constraints. Speaking of justice to an enemy about to conquer is the last tactic of the weak, willing to try all tactics, even desperate ones, Kautilya made up a powerful speech to be given by a weak king to the king about to conquer, a speech offering a mixture of moral exhortation and arguments based on the self-interest of the conqueror. In this speech, Kautilya depicted an envoy saying to the conquering king that he should accept a treaty and pay regard to [his] spiritual and material well-being; that conquering a kingdom willing to surrender on reasonable terms is an impious act; that battle is not in the conquering kings self-interest, since to fight with brave men who have given up all hope of life is a rash deed and the conqueror will lose troops and material good; that such a conquest will only unite his enemies all the more; that the conquering kings enemies are only waiting for him to be weakened in order to attack; that he himself is risking death; that war itself in which men on each side die is an impious act; and that he should not listen to enemies masquerading as friends who are giving him false advice as to his real self-interest.[13] Kautilya demonstrated the realities of diplomacy and war as well as the ineffectiveness of moral pleas when confronted by a superior power. Kautilya wanted legions, but he wanted them preceded by elephants, which acted in the ancient world a bit like modern tanks. 6. Kautilya considered the treasury most valuable in raising an army, procuring equipment (including elephants), and preparing for war. After the treasury and the army, Kautilya focused on the importance of the fort, on which depends the treasury, the army, silent war, restraint of ones own party, use of armed forces, receiving allied troops, and warding off enemy troops and forest tribes. And in the absence of a fort, the treasury will fall into the hands of enemies, those with forts are not exterminated.[15] 7. Constraint resolution. Kautilya was consistent in ranking the importance of the treasury, the army, and forts, but it seems that the people, or a popular army, are the most important of all. As he put it, one should seek a fortress with men.[19] 8. Kautilya apparently believed that an army of kshatriyas was best; warriors were supposed to find their highest duty and pleasure by dying in battle. Kautilya clearly argued that sections of the army should consist mostly of persons from the same region, caste or profession. It was a very clever idea to be mooted as common sense, shows that he is suggesting that men of an army should know one another, that an army of friends fighting side by side is the most difficult to defeat. On the subject of the kings location during battle, for example, he wrote: A bare army, without standards, consisting of warriors related as fathers, sons and brothers, should be the place for the king. An elephant or a chariot should be the vehicle for the king, guarded by cavalry. (Kautilya wanted a man who looked like the king to lead the army into battle.) And thus, a kings power, for Kautilya, is in the end tied to the power and popular energy of the people, without which a king can be conquered, for n ot being rooted among his subjects, a king becomes easy to uproot.[20] Although Kautilya wrote of using money to raise an army and even of purchasing heroic men, he was not advocating mercenaries who fought only for pay, but he was merely outlining the cost of paying, supplying, and feeding soldiers. He believed that hereditary troops are better than hired troops; in other words, troops made of men born in the kingdom and thus loyal to the king since birth are better than strangers fighting for money. 9. Contemporary school of thought. While military power may be the primary tool a nation uses to wage war, it is not the only one available. Military power, together with economic and political power, may be used to impose ones will upon an opponent. These other elements of national power, such as economic or political, are linked with military action at the national strategic level and passed to the operational and tactical levels of military actions through constraints or limitations on the use of force. Nevertheless, these other elements of power are not fully integrated at the lower levels of war. In the Marxist tradition, Svechin included the possibility of war on economic and social fronts as well as on a military front. [21] The actions along all fronts must be fully integrated and in accord with the political goals of the struggle. The use of diplomatic efforts to preclude and enemy alliance or a second hostile (military) front and economic efforts to insure sufficient financ ial resources for the conduct of combat operations. 10. While Kautilya had propounded the postulates for constraint management in warfare in the ancient times but the relevance with the contemporary thought is startling. Military power being only one of the instruments of national power has been highlighted by Kautilya and the same thought is holding today. The resolution of the constraints and overriding of the bottlenecks faced by the commander in the battlefield have their genesis in the employment of all the instruments of national power towards conflict resolution and that is why Arthashastra has been regarded as the epitome of statecraft in all the spheres. If decisive military force is used only as a last resort, after extensive diplomatic, economic, political, and even military power short of actual war have failed to break the will of the enemy, a quick and well placed application of military force would leave little opportunity for the implementation of further nonmilitary initiative. One must never lose sight of the overall objective of warfare which is to get the enemy to do ones will. This may be best achieved through a thoughtful and complete linkage of all elements of national power. With that linkage brought down to the operational level, chances for a long-lasting victory will increase dramatically. This is where Arthashastra and the present day war strategy are concomitant. CHAPTER IV ARTHASHASTRA APPROACH TO ECONOMICS OF WAR 1. Economics of the nation state. Economic power has become a very powerful tool to enhance the capabilities of a nation and limit those of an adversary. However, as nations become more intertwined through globalisation, they become more vulnerable to disruptions in their economies, manmade or natural, due to reliance on foreign sources of raw materials, components, finished products, or key services. A nation can also use its economy to try to defeat another power. The nation can use its economic power in attempts to destroy a targets capability to take certain actions or destroy its ability to project power. Although physical defeat of the enemy is more often associated with military operations, economic means are also viable to support the elimination of a nations ability to take certain actions. 2. A nations ability to provide resources to research, develop, and further educate their people can lead to new applications of science and knowledge to solve problems in other words, technology. Technological advances can replace existing weapon and support systems to enhance or expand war fighting capability. Acquiring technology through a nations own human resources or with capital resources can allow the nation to make great leaps in economic progress. 3. Arthashastra view of economy as precursor to military power. Kautilya emphasised that, the three kinds of powers intellectual, compelling, motivating are essentially and unavoidably required to be developed and employed in a manner that they complement each other. None can be used in isolation. According to Kautilya the main aim of any state is to increase ones power, mainly at the cost of the natural enemy. This increase in power is essentially the first step in the realisation of the ambition to conquer the world. However, Kautilya also specifically mentions that the most important factor that must be weighed before starting is the gain expected from the confrontation and the losses likely to be suffered. Normally, the gain that is to accrue should far outweigh the losses in men, animals and expenses in cash and grains. Thus Kautilya professed a thoughtful approach to the cause of expanding ones kingdom and always kept the focus on resolution of the economic constraints in the w ar waging capability of the state. He has also stressed that the king is duty bound to ensure, that the people of his kingdom are happy and content, because, a happy kingdom is likely to be prosperous. He further states that a prosperous and wealthy state is unlikely to succumb to another even in case of a conflict. 4. Kosa or the Treasury. The fifth most important element of the state is the treasury according to Kautilya. All activities of the state depend on finance and therefore sufficient attention needs to be given to the treasury. Kautilya considered the treasury most valuable in raising an army, procuring equipment (including elephants), and preparing for war. After the treasury and the army, Kautilya focused on the importance of the fort, on which depends the treasury, the army, silent war, restraint of ones own party, use of armed forces, receiving allied troops, and warding off enemy troops and forest tribes. Kautilya lays down various causes that may contribute to the growth or reduction of the treasury. Kautilya says The wealth of the state shall be one acquired lawfully either by inheritance or by the kings own efforts. He further adds that the treasury should be rich enough to withstand any calamity especially when the state has no income for a long time. 5. Managing the economy for power Arthashastra approach. Management of the state necessitated realism, not idealism. It required the prudence and precise calculation of measures undertaken alongside their short and long-term consequences, which formulated the theoretical beginnings of economics: Wealth will slip away from that childish man who constantly consults the stars: the only guiding star of wealth is itself; what can the stars of the sky do? Man, without wealth, does not get it even after a hundred attempts. Just as elephants are needed to catch elephants, so does wealth capture more wealth.[22] Public welfare was contingent upon the strength of the state. The latter was achieved by internal development or territorial expansion, both of which were realized through power.[24] Hence, the prime motive of the state was the never-ending pursuit of artha. It is only after dedicating its energies to this end, can the state or king then move on to fulfilling dharma and kama. As such, the Arthashastra provides extensive coverage on the overall economy, which includes: infrastructure (roadwork, irrigation, forestry, and fortification), weights and measurements, labor and employment, commerce and trade, commodities and agriculture, land use and property laws, money and coinage, interest rates and loan markets, tariffs and taxes, and government expenditures and the treasury. The high level of detail dedicated to these areas demonstrates the remarkable organisation and centralisation of the state idealised in the Arthashastra, and it also supports the view that the information contained in the text is a compilation of works that have endured over long periods of trial and er ror. 6. The Arthashastra is surprisingly calculated on every minute detail and economic function the exact number of panas[25] is provided for every salaried position, legal ramification, commodity, and livestock. Economics was regulated through such central planning and the highly detailed attempts at identifying the optimal amount for every economic function stresses this constant strive towards efficiently improving the overall utility and welfare of society. Along with prudence and careful calculation, the state is advised to be extremely active or energetic in managing the economy, as the Arthashastra states that, The root of material well-being is activity, of material disaster its reverse. In the absence of activity, there is certain destruction of what is obtained and of what is not yet received. By activity reward is obtained, and one also secures abundance of riches.Similarly, a different verse in the same chapter advocates the direction of such activity towards improving publi c welfare. Though seemingly liberal and humanitarian, this too had a very important economic basis. Hence, dedicating resources to the lower rungs of society also strengthened the peripheries of the state, which in turn actuated territorial expansion. Furthermore, providing amenities for the poor masses indirectly stimulated population growth, and thus, the overall growth of the state and economy in the long run. Hence, there is a lot of truth in the verses in which the Arthashastra states that it is the people who constitute a kingdom; like a barren cow, a kingdom without people yields nothing. The emphasis on population growth for indirectly achieving economic prosperity is also hinted elsewhere in the text, in which the Arthashastra strongly prohibits premarital sex and adultery and instead encourages fertility via rewards and punishments framed within the legal system. Central planning was directed towards maintaining stability, order, and efficiency in the economy. 7. Kautilyas Principle and Aim of Economy Artha can therefore be summed up as Peace can be maintained by making war difficult and costly for the enemy through the balance of power achieved through alliances. 8. Contemporary perspective. Whilst the basis of exerting power of any country has been that of expansion in the last twenty odd years the focus has shifted from territorial expansion to one of economic expansion. There are a number of examples of countries or coalitions trying to exert pressure on other countries to ensure the protection of their own economic interests. The engagements between all the countries of the world bear testimony to the fact that almost all parties have been trying to protect their own interests in dealing with others. The principles enumerated by Kautilya in his policy of Samdhi or Treaty have almost universal application today. Countries today are indulging in more and more treaties or accords than ever before to safeguard their own interests. 9. Kautilya also mentions that war should be declared as a last resort and that all other means like sama, dana, and bheda (conciliation, gifts/bribes, dissension) should be implemented towards averting war. In other words Kautilya prefers putting pressure on the enemy without breaking the peace. These very principles have been laid down in Chapter I of the United Nations Charter, where article I states To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace. 10. This brings forth the justification of the well being of the society as the predominant factor since the ancient times till date. Also, the diversion of the resources meant for the well being of the society towards the war waging potential without the exploitation of all the options towards resolution is being despised upon. This was relevant during Kautilyas times and is as relevant today. Though economy is a major constraint in the war waging potential of a nation state, and all efforts are made by the state to strengthen this instrument of national power prior to gaining the military ascendency, it is also proving to be a major restraint in controllong the expansionist attitude of states since ancient times. CHAPTER V DERIVATION OF MILITARY POWER FROM ECONOMIC POWER 1. Economic power. Economic power can be defined broadly as the capacity to influence other states through economic means. It is composed of a countrys industrial base, natural resources, capital, technology, geographic position, health system and education system. 2. Military power. Military power is the capacity to use force or the threat of force to influence other states. Components of military power include number of divisions, armaments, organisation, training, equipment, readiness, deployment and morale. 3. Power is an elusive concept. In the historical perspective, military power has been paramount and economic power a luxury. This has slowly changed to the point that the two roles have become interchangeable. A countrys military capability is derived from its economic capacity. A countrys economic capacity also de